companions were aroused. Muḥammad had been deceived in his expectations regarding the Jewish community in Medina and the disagreements with the Jews had made a religious breach with them inevitable. To this period belongs the origin of doctrine of the religion of Abraham, the alleged original type of Judaism and Islām. The Ka‘ba now gradually advances into the centre of religious worship, the father of monotheism built it with his son Isma‘il and it was to be a ‘place of assembly for mankind.” … In this period also the Ka‘ba was made a kibla — This is the position of affairs in the year 2 of the Hidjra.”

On the face of it, it appears to be a very plausible theory but it is in flat contradiction to historical facts. The battle of Badr was fought in the month of Ramadzān, in the second year of Hijrah, and the final rupture with the Jews came in the third year after the battle of Uḥud; while the Ka‘bah was made a qiblah sixteen months after the Hijrah (Bu. 8:31), that is to say, about three months before the battle of Badr. The structure which, according to Hughes, Wensinck and Hurgronje, was built on the victory of Badr and the rupture with the Jews, the idea of formulating a doctrine of the religion of Abraham, the father of monotheism, as a prototype of Islām, Judaism and Christianity; of the sacredness of the Ka‘bah and its connection with the names of Abraham and Ishmael; of the Ka‘bah being made a qiblah and of the institution of ḥajj with prospects of conquering Makkah; all this existed not only long before the battle of Badr but even before the Holy Prophet’s flight to Madīnah. The religion of Abraham as pure monotheism is mentioned in a chapter of the Holy Qur’ān (sūrah) belonging to the middle Makkah period, where Abraham is also called a ḥanīf: “Surely Abraham was a model (of virtue), obedient to Allāh, upright (ḥanīf) … Then we revealed to thee: Follow the faith (milla) of Abraham, the upright one (ḥanīf), and he was not of the polytheists” (16:120-123). And again in a chapter belonging to the last Makkah period: “My Lord has guided me to the right path — a right religion, the faith (milla) of Abraham, the upright one (ḥanīf), and he was not of the polytheists” (6:161). It is surprising to find Orientalists so learned ignoring such broad facts of history for the sake of a pet theory.