intervene (Bu. 34:58), but auction is allowed (Bu. 34:59). There is no restriction as to whom a man may sell his property, but the withholding of food-stuffs so that they may become dear (iḥtikār) is prohibited (Bu. 34:54), and so is the inflation of prices in general. The seller of cattle is prohibited from leaving them unmilked some days before selling, so that they may fetch a higher price (Bu. 34:64). Sale of fruits or crops before they are in a fit condition to be reaped is deprecated, because it gives rise to disputes (Bu. 34:85). In the ḥadīth narrated in this chapter, it is expressly stated that it was not an injunction but an advice. If the fruits on trees are valued, they may be sold (Bu. 34:75, 82, 83). Imaginary sales, when there are no goods to deliver, are prohibited (Bu. 34:61); neither should one sell what one does not possess (Ah. II, pp. 189, 190). The sale of land is not favoured, and it is recommended that one should not sell his land or house unless he intends to purchase other land or another house with the money (Ah. I, p. 190; III, p. 467). The taking of oaths in sale transactions is expressly forbidden (Ah. V, p. 297).

Mortgage

Mortgage of property, or giving it as security for debt, is also allowed. The Holy Qur’ān expressly allows the giving or taking of a security of which possession is taken by the mortgagee (rihān-un maqbūdzah) (2:283); and though this case is mentioned in connection with a journey, the words have been taken by all commentators as conveying a general permission, and reliable ḥadīth corroborate this conclusion. It is related that the Holy Prophet himself left his shield as security with a Jew when borrowing some barley from him (Bu. 48:1,2). When a horse was given as a security, the mortgagee was allowed to use it for riding as a compensation for feeding it. Similarly a milch-animal’s milk was allowed to the mortgagee when he fed the animal (Bu. 48:4). Hence it is evident that when agricultural land or a house is mortgaged with possession, the mortgagee can derive benefit from it when he pays land-revenue or house-tax, or spends money on the upkeep of the property.

Bequest

An owner of property is also allowed to bequeath his property for a