reference to religious history. The practice of fasting has been recognized well-nigh universally in all the higher, revealed religions, though the same stress is not laid on it in all, and the forms and motives vary. “Its modes and motives vary considerably according to climate, race, civilization and other circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any religious system of any description in which it is wholly unrecognized” (En. Br., art. Fasting). Confucianism, according to the writer in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, is the only exception. Zoroastrianism, which is sometimes mentioned as another exception, is stated as enjoining, “Upon the priesthood at least, no fewer than five yearly fasts.” Present-day Christianity may not attach much value to religious devotions of this sort, but not only did the Founder of Christianity himself keep a fast for forty days and observe fasting on the Day of Atonement like a true Jew, but also commended fasting to his disciples: “Moreover, when ye fast, be not as the hypocrites, of a sad countenance … But thou, when thou fastest, anoint thine head, and wash thy face” (Mt. 6:16, 17). It appears that his disciples did fast, but not as often as did those of the Baptist, and when questioned on that point, his reply was that they would fast more frequently when he was taken away (Lk. 5:33-35). The early Christians are also spoken of as fasting.2 Even St. Paul fasted.3

New meaning introduced by Islām

Cruden’s remark in his Bible Concordance that fasting in all nations was resorted to “in times of mourning, sorrow and afflictions” is borne out by the facts. Among the Jews, generally, fasting was observed as a sign of grief or mourning. Thus, David is mentioned as fasting for seven days during the illness of his infant son (II Sam. 12:16-18); and, as a sign of mourning, fasting is mentioned in I Sam. 31:13 and elsewhere. Besides the Day of Atonement, which was prescribed by the Mosaic law as a day of fasting (Lev. 16:29) — the people being required to “afflict” their souls while the priest made an atonement for them to cleanse them of their sins — various other fast-days came into vogue after the Exile “in sorrowful commemoration of the various sad events which had issued in the downfall of the kingdom of Judah” (En. Br.). Four of these became regular fasting-days,